Rep., US Patent 3794736, 1974. J. Yan and J. Cheng, “Antimicrobial yarn having nanosilver particles and methods for manufacturing the same,” Tech. The biocidal properties of 3-(trimethoxysilylpropyl)dimethyloctadecylammonium chloride and related organosilicon quaternary ammonium chloride- (Si-QAC-) treated surfaces (glass, stone, fibres, metals, and plastic) against bacteria, yeast, algae, and fungi were demonstrated as early as 1971 [256–258]; since then, it has been commercially marketed as Aegis® antimicrobial. As we transit into the new postpandemic age, we cannot ignore the social and psychological aspects of donning additional apparel. Where safe distancing is not possible, personal protective equipment (PPE) is the accepted mode of self-protection. Universal masking was also advocated by leading experts in clinical microbiology and infectious disease specialties. Heimbuch et al. “Administration, U. S. F. D. Product classification,” May. Mask, US Patent 2020/042096A1, 2018. reported activated carbon (ACF) fibre filters deposited by Sophora flavescens, and the as-coated ACF filter exhibited antimicrobial efficiency higher than 90%, with the toluene removing capacity maintained [171]. Coincidentally, polypropylene is the most common material used for a 3-ply surgical mask while other materials like polystyrene, polycarbonate, polyethylene, and polyester can also be used in masks [62]. Likewise, Fisher et al. Fluid resistance evaluates the mask’s ability to act as a barrier to the transfer of fluids from its outer to its inner layers due to spraying or splashing. To have a clear picture of the exact impact being imposed by face masks, comprehensive life cycle assessment (LCA), a well-adopted methodology for analysing the environmental impact of an industrial system from cradle to grave, should be used. Rep., US Patent 2009/0211581A1, 2009. In a hospital in Nebraska (USA), for example, decontamination was performed by having contaminated masks hanged on wires drawn across an empty room fitted with two UV light towers [111]. Rep., US PAtent US8375949B2, 2013. Nonetheless, should the need of reuse arise due to the issue of shortage, several well-studied decontamination methods can be considered. Face mask-wearing in households seems to be ineffective for seasonal infectious diseases. The middle piece is the filter, which prevents particles or pathogens above a certain size from penetrating in either direction. Metal-based nanoparticles (NPs) are a growing field in the fight against microbes due to their low toxicity towards humans at concentrations effective for pathogen inactivation [203–207]. Although the surgical mask as a control sample possesses the highest efficacy, the vacuum cleaner bag, tea towel, and cotton mix also showed filtration efficiency of higher than 70%. In this model, the effectiveness of surgical masks was low and insignificant. Rep., US Patent WO2017184798A1, 2017. ZIF-8 nanocrystals were integrated to nonwoven fabrics via hot pressing. Multiple functions, way beyond the essential medical needs and convenience, would be desired. Face masks provide the user with protection against airborne particles, pathogens, secretions, and body fluids by physically filtering them from breathable air. The large open-circuit voltage (up to several hundred volts) generated by TENG based on triboelectrification and electrostatic induction effect makes it a popular candidate for application in various self-powered wearable devices [153]. V. Midha and A. Dakuri, “Spun bonding technology and fabric properties: a review,”, I. M. Hutten, “Chapter 1 - introduction to nonwoven filter media,” in, K. Dutton, “Overview and analysis of the meltblown process and parameters,”, J. Hagewood, “3 - technologies for the manufacture of synthetic polymer fibers,” in, B. Henneberry, “How surgical masks are made,”, R. Valaperta, M. R. Tejada, M. Frigerio et al., “Staphylococcus aureus nosocomial infections: the role of a rapid and low-cost characterization for the establishment of a surveillance system,”, E. Klein, D. Smith, and R. Laxminarayan, “Hospitalizations and deaths caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, United States, 1999–2005,”. As face masks are an integral part of the personal protective equipment (PPE) kit for medical use, these standardized characteristics ensure consistency in mask production and testing validation and help the end-user to make the most informed choice of mask for the intended application. All rights Reserved. Studies on the effect of wearing face masks in households have been plagued by confounding factors and adherence issues. A. Torrecilla-García, and S. Calero-Castro, “Disposable masks: disinfection and sterilization for reuse, and non-certified manufacturing, in the face of shortages during the COVID-19 pandemic,”, M. Ippolito, F. Vitale, G. Accurso et al., “Medical masks and respirators for the protection of healthcare workers from SARS-CoV-2 and other viruses,”, A. Polkinghorne and J. Branley, “Evidence for decontamination of single-use filtering facepiece respirators,”. They are a physical barrier to respiratory droplets that may enter through the nose and mouth and to the expulsion of mucosalivary droplets from infected individuals [6, 7]. Using negatively charged electrospun PEI as the nonwoven electret, 99.6% particle (0.3 μm) removal efficiency was achieved. With the loss of partial face visibility, a substantial population of the hearing-impaired will be adversely affected in speech perception. Rep., US Patent US20050056286, 2004. Of all materials, polypropylene is the most common as it is relatively cheap and has low melt viscosity for easy processing. Rep., US Patent 5888527, 1999. Y. Imashiro, N. Sasaki, Y. Ogushi, and M. Iizuka, “Antimicrobial, dustproof fabric and mask,” Tech. As inspiring as it appears, the market is still waiting for a truly multifunctional multipurpose product, or one that can be tailored to one’s needs. It was found that with an exhaust valve, the cloth mask had a filtration efficiency of 80-90% against PSL particles. The mask may not fully cover the mouth and nose, or it may be used and reused too frequently. These efforts include strategies to reuse disposable masks, a search for alternative mask material with low GHG emission, etc. Face masks can prevent dispersal of droplets when infected persons talk, sing, cough, or sneeze. B. Powell, and R. E. Shaffer, “Impact of three cycles of decontamination treatments on filtering facepiece respirator fit,”, W. G. Lindsley, S. B. Martin Jr., R. E. Thewlis et al., “Effects of ultraviolet germicidal irradiation (UVGI) on N95 respirator filtration performance and structural integrity,”, L. Liao, W. Xiao, M. Zhao et al., “Can N95 respirators be reused after disinfection? mixed Sophora flavescens with polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) solution for electrospinning and thus prepared antimicrobial nanofibrous membrane. G. Ren, J. S. Oxford, P. W. Reip, R. Lambkin-Willams, and A. Mann, “Anti-v0iral formulations nanomaterials and nanoparticles,” Tech. Rep., US Patent 201320356118, 2013. The graphene coating functions as an aqueous-resistant layer on the mask surface. any disease or health condition. Thompson, K. Giri, G. Kafatos, J. Walker, and A. Bennett, “Testing the efficacy of homemade masks: would they protect in an influenza pandemic?”. The replaceable layer of fibrous material filters out viruses and other pathogens and allows the mask to be washed and reused. Some of these innovative efforts have been described in Section 6.4. Several review articles and websites have effectively summarised research findings and outcomes derived from efforts in this area [96–98]. Recently, the excellent photothermal properties of graphene in NIR regions have been utilized to increase the surface temperature and thus inactivate microorganisms [267, 268]. where and represent the number of bacteria colonies in the control and in the presence of the filter, respectively. Bergman et al. However, due to the nanofibre filter, the mask should not be laundered. M. Kanovsky, “Antimicrobial material comprising synergistic combinations of metal oxides,” Tech. Rep., US Patent 4856509, 1989. for FFRs after undergoing 3 cycles of bleach treatment (30 min, 0.6%) [102]. For instance, although the tight-fitting N95 respirator has filtering capacity superior to surgical masks, they have lower breathability and may cause discomfort after hours of wearing. Though each of them has a different mechanism of biocidal action, a generally proposed mechanism includes (i) the disruption of cell membrane metabolism due to the penetration of nanoparticles and/or release of metal ions and (ii) the effect of photocatalytic, as reactive oxygen species (ROS) like hydroxyl (HO⋅) and superoxide radicals (O2-⋅) are generated, which induce oxidative stress to microorganisms and cause the ultimate inactivation [174–177]. These include the layer number, the layer density (threads per inch, TPI), and the facial fitness (openings and gaps between the mask edge and the facial contours). Steinberg proposes using invisible or transparent materials and antibiotic/antiodour solutions with a transparent resin. While catechin at this concentration did not inhibit E. coli bacteria growth, it reduced the surface virus titer of T4D bacteriophage. Apart from antimicrobial air filters, multifunctional air filters, which simultaneously remove PM, microorganisms, and volatile organic compounds (VOCs), have drawn increasing research attention recently [188, 189]. Deep, “Bioactive nano-metal–organic frameworks as antimicrobials against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria,”, S. K. Springthorpe, C. M. Dundas, and B. K. Keitz, “Microbial reduction of metal-organic frameworks enables synergistic chromium removal,”, G. Wyszogrodzka, B. Marszałek, B. Gil, and P. Dorożyński, “Metal-organic frameworks: mechanisms of antibacterial action and potential applications,”, S. Ma, M. Zhang, J. Nie, B. Yang, S. Song, and P. Lu, “Multifunctional cellulose-based air filters with high loadings of metal–organic frameworks prepared by in situ growth method for gas adsorption and antibacterial applications,”, P. Li, J. Li, X. Feng et al., “Metal-organic frameworks with photocatalytic bactericidal activity for integrated air cleaning,”, A. W. H. Chin, J. T. S. Chu, M. R. A. Perera et al., “Stability of SARS-CoV-2 in different environmental conditions,”, B. Bean, B. M. Moore, B. Sterner, L. R. Peterson, D. N. Gerding, and H. H. Balfour Jr., “Survival of influenza viruses on environmental surfaces,”, M. M. Weiss, P. D. Weiss, D. E. Weiss, and J. For the use of microwave ovens, steam treatment may be carried out in a microwave steam bag, which is not an uncommon household item, given its uses in cooking or disinfecting items used for babies. Schematic illustration of spunbond and melt-blown process. (2) Cationic Ammonium Compounds. The VFE value is calculated by comparison with a control without the filter material as described above for BFE. We would like to show you a description here but the site won’t allow us. I. T. W. Lam and A. Hsu, “Face mask having transparent plastic piece,” Tech. This was followed by R&D efforts in the engineering of multifunctional masks with properties such as antimicrobial activity, hydrophobicity, transparent see-through surfaces, sensing-cleaning, self-powered, and even sensing and detection capabilities. It is obvious that despite the high filtration efficiency of a vacuum cleaner bag and tea towel, their high-pressure drop values make them unsuitable for masks. Heat from the person’s exhalation is absorbed by the material, which melts in the process, henceforth reducing the rise in temperature in the small space. The most common, coat hanger-type, has a manifold at the polymer entrance to ensure even and uniform distribution of polymer flow, The die nosepiece is the key component which ensures the filament diameter and quality. Owing to the uniform dispersion of antimicrobial ingredient across the polymeric nanofibres, the fabricated hybrid nanofibrous filter exhibited excellent filtration efficiency (99.99%) and superior antimicrobial activity (99.98%) against Staphylococcus epidermidis (S. epidermidis), with a low-pressure drop of 3.9% compared with the control at a face air velocity of 1.79 cm/s [173]. Be'er, Y. Oren, J. M. Tour, and C. J. Arnusch, “Laser-induced graphene layers and electrodes prevents microbial fouling and exerts antimicrobial action,”, A. K. Thakur, S. P. Singh, M. N. Kleinberg, A. Gupta, and C. J. Arnusch, “Laser-induced graphene–PVA composites as robust electrically conductive water treatment membranes,”, A. Gupta, L. Holoidovsky, C. Thamaraiselvan et al., “Silver-doped laser-induced graphene for potent surface antibacterial activity and anti-biofilm action,”, “DeZeen Guardian G-Volt masks would use graphene and electrical charge to repel viruses and bacteria,”. A. Panáček, L. Kvítek, M. Smékalová et al., “Bacterial resistance to silver nanoparticles and how to overcome it,”, J. L. Hobman and L. C. Crossman, “Bacterial antimicrobial metal ion resistance,”. Nanoparticles, such as polytetrafluoroethylene, silicon nitride, magnesium stearate, titanium dioxide, boehmite, and SiO2, are usually employed as charge enhancers, and various hybrid electret filters have been developed via the in situ charging technology of electrospinning [140, 147–149]. Bergman et al. Low et al., “ALD-seeded hydrothermally-grown Ag/ZnO nanorod PTFE membrane as efficient indoor air filter,”, Y. Zhao, Z.-X. Face mask sampling has been used by Williams and coworkers to detect M. tuberculosis in breath [334]. Tsai, “Enhancement of barrier fabrics with breathable films and of face masks and filters with novel fluorochemical electret reinforcing treatment,” Tech. Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are a class of porous crystalline materials that are composed of transition-metal cations and coordinately bonded multidentate organic linkers. In addition to these aforementioned standardized tests, the medical face masks should be tested according to ISO 10993-5 and 10, which specifies cytotoxicity [78] and skin sensitivity [79] test methods, respectively, to ensure the materials are not harmful to the wearer. This layer also absorbs the moisture from exhaled air, thus improving comfort. evaluated the effects of three 15-minute UVGI treatment cycles (1.8 mW/cm2) on FFRs [102, 103]. If supplies are insufficient, the general public should use cloth masks when they are outside their homes. As a result, the die tip is very fragile and has to be replaced frequently once the metal between the orifices is broken, https://www.thomasnet.com/articles/other/how-surgical-masks-are-made/, https://www.kaken.or.jp/test/search/detail/34#ID1, https://www.primed.ca/clinical-resources/astm-mask-protection-standards/, https://www.nelsonlabs.com/testing/bacterial-viral-filtration-efficiency-bfe-vfe/, http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/cdrh_docs/pdf8/K081923.pdf, http://www.frazierinstrument.com/reference/standards/organizations/mil/abstract-mil-m-36954c.html, https://www.nelsonlabs.com/testing/flammability-test/, https://www.nytimes.com/article/how-to-make-face-mask-coronavirus.html, https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/diy-cloth-face-coverings.html, https://www.apsf.org/article/covid-19-pandemic-decontamination-of-respirators-and-masks-for-the-general-public-healthcare-workers-and-hospital-environments/, https://www.taiwannews.com.tw/en/news/3876567, https://multimedia.3m.com/mws/media/1824869O/decontamination-methods-for-3m-filtering-facepiece-respirators-technical-bulletin.pdf, https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfPCD/classification.cfm, https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfpmn/pmn.cfm, http://www.ansonnano.cn/xinyemian14/detail_40341, https://www.copperlineaustralia.com/pages/testing-standards-as-of-28-03-2020, https://www.israel21c.org/a-face-recognition-tech-that-works-even-for-masked-faces/, https://www.yankodesign.com/2020/04/12/face-mask-designs-for-a-surreal-future-where-wearing-masks-is-humanitys-new-norm/, https://www.dezeen.com/2020/03/06/guardian-g-volt-face-mask-graphene-coronavirus-bacteria/, https://techcrunch.com/2020/05/17/fitbits-rival-amazfit-transparent-reusable-mask/, https://www.yankodesign.com/2020/04/30/this-air-purifying-face-shield-creates-a-bubble-of-safety-around-its-wearer/?utm_source=feedburner&utm_medium=feed&utm_campaign=Feed%3A+yankodesign+%28Yanko+Design+-+Form+Beyond+Function%29, https://www.yankodesign.com/2020/05/03/face-mask-designed-for-a-surreal-future-where-wearing-ppe-is-humanitys-new-norm/, https://www.gadgetmatch.com/dyson-face-mask-air-purifier-headphones-patent/, https://www.technologynetworks.com/diagnostics/articles/mask-sampling-for-covid-19-detection-333724, https://www.businessinsider.sg/coronavirus-face-mask-light-up-screening-tool-test-2020-5, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-52807526, https://www.a-star.edu.sg/News-and-Events/a-star-news/news/covid-19/the-science-of-a-diy-mask, https://www.koreatechtoday.com/kaist-researchers-develop-highly-reusable-mask-filter/, https://news.ubc.ca/2020/05/21/ubc-researchers-develop-biodegradable-medical-mask-for-covid-19/, American Association for the Advancement of Science. suggest that treatments in liquid H2O2 were not found to affect the filtering performance of N95 FFRs [101, 102]. As shown in Table 2, all materials are capable of blocking the microorganisms to different degrees, and they all worked better in the case of B. atrophaeus due to its large size. Even with the right mask, wearers can still be infected if droplets enter via the eyes, thus highlighting the importance of additional protection [40]. Reading one’s full face provides nontrivial cues to accessing another fellow human being. A recent study showed that the SARS-CoV-2 virus can remain infectious on the outer layer of the surgical mask even after 6 days [197]. After 100 days, the number of infected per million population in Hong Kong was significantly lower than countries without universal masking. reported that treating FFRs with ethylene oxide vapour (725–883 mg/L) at 55°C for 1 hour, followed by 4 hours of aeration, do not yield any visible sign of mask degradation, with the exception of darkening of elastic straps [100, 101]. As the performance of DIY masks depends on the materials used and how it is they are assembled, the public should not have the misconception that DIY masks can serve as a surgical mask alternative. Shakya et al. Rep., US Patent 2527849A, 2016. reported no recoverable SARS-CoV-2 viruses on N95 FFR surfaces after the masks undergo a one-hour treatment cycle involving 10 minutes of dehumidification, 3 minutes of conditioning, 30 minutes of decontamination, and 20 minutes of aeration. “Administration, U. S. F. D. 510(k) premarket notification,” May, Y. N. Slavin, J. Asnis, U. O. Häfeli, and H. Bach, “Metal nanoparticles: understanding the mechanisms behind antibacterial activity,”, A. J. Huh and Y. J. Kwon, “"Nanoantibiotics": a new paradigm for treating infectious diseases using nanomaterials in the antibiotics resistant era,”, E. Sánchez-López, D. Gomes, G. Esteruelas et al., “Metal-based nanoparticles as antimicrobial agents: an overview,”, S. M. Dizaj, F. Lotfipour, M. Barzegar-Jalali, M. H. Zarrintan, and K. Adibkia, “Antimicrobial activity of the metals and metal oxide nanoparticles,”, E. Hoseinzadeh, P. Makhdoumi, P. Taha et al., “A review on nano-antimicrobials: metal nanoparticles, methods and mechanisms,”, G. R. Rudramurthy, M. K. Swamy, U. R. Sinniah, and A. Ghasemzadeh, “Nanoparticles: alternatives against drug-resistant pathogenic microbes,”, N.-Y. A similar conclusion was reached among young adults living in university residence halls, where a combination of face masks and hand hygiene did not correlate with a significant decrease in the rate of influenza-like illness [49]. (2) Breath Sensors. o. C. Smart mask project,”. Heat, moist, and steam appear to be one of the most popular ways of decontamination because they do not require the use of dangerous chemicals and radiation or any sophisticated equipment. Kenney et al. reported the increase in average penetration, as well as deformation, shrinking, stiffening, and mottling of N95 FFRs after 15 and 30 minutes of autoclave treatment [100, 101]. From Equations (3) and (5), it is clear that the larger the difference in the areas the air flows through or the smaller is the mask pore, the greater the pressure drops or negative differential pressure. J. Gabbay, “Antimicrobial, antifungal and antiviral rayon fibers,” Tech. A meta-analysis was performed on clinical studies to explore the protective effect of masks. We then explored the effectiveness of DIY homemade masks as an alternative to commercial masks. To further improve capture efficiency towards ultrafine particles and reduce weight and packing density of the filters to ensure low resistance to airflow, polymer membranes with a novel nanofibre/net hierarchical porous structure have recently been developed using the cutting-edge electrospinning/netting technology, which is a versatile one-step process for fabrication of polymer membranes comprising common electrospun nanofibres interconnected with two-dimensional nanonets [143]. Electrospinning solutions L. Sage, V. Moules et al., “ respiratory mask with membrane. Unit, the graphene-coated masks can not ignore the social and psychological aspects of donning additional apparel confer onto! “ reusable antibacterial maks for fine dust, ” Tech spark an far! Changes such as Singapore ’ s full face provides nontrivial cues to accessing another fellow human.! Under a constant airflow rate devices — part 5: tests for in vitro cytotoxicity ”... 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